Hokkaidō Wolf

Harmful animals in Hokkaido

In Japanese mythology, both the extinct Honshu wolf and the Hokkaido wolf, also known as the Ezo wolf, are revered as benevolent beings. One legend, similar to the Roman myth of Romulus and Remus, recounts that a son of Fujiwara no Hidehira, a 12th-century Japanese noble and ruler, was protected and cared for by wolves after his mother gave birth to him during a pilgrimage.

For the Ainu, the indigenous people of northern Japan, the Hokkaido wolf held profound spiritual significance and was worshipped as the deity Horkew Kamuy (“howling god”). The Ainu considered their own origins closely tied to wolves, performed ritual sacrifices in their honor, and made efforts to preserve wolf-like traits in their dogs. The wolf was sacred to them and an integral part of their mythology and hunting traditions.

This deep reverence by the Ainu starkly contrasted with the later fate of the Hokkaido wolves, which were completely eradicated by 1889, the official date of their extinction. With the Meiji Restoration starting in 1868, Emperor Meiji ended Japan’s long isolation and initiated a comprehensive modernization of agriculture. The government planned to transform Hokkaido (Ezo), a previously underdeveloped island, into an advanced agricultural region where horses and cattle would be raised. It was believed that livestock farming would represent the agricultural future of northern Japan, and wolves were seen as a threat to this progress.

In this context, American rancher Edwin Dun arrived in Hokkaido in 1873 as an advisor to introduce modern American livestock practices to the Japanese. With the establishment of state-operated horse and cattle experimental farms modeled after Western practices, the aversion to predators posing a threat to livestock grew. For Dun, wolves symbolized animals that hindered the progress of civilization, which the government could not tolerate, leading to the classification of wolves as “harmful animals.” The Meiji government, heavily reliant on the expertise of Western advisors, adopted Dun’s negative view of the wolves.

Dun was eventually tasked with eradicating the Hokkaido wolves and wild dogs in southeastern Hokkaido. At the Niikappu Ranch, Dun led a program to exterminate the wolves using strychnine, a substance formerly used as rat poison – a method widely used by American wolf hunters and in other regions where industrial livestock farming had become a fixture of modern agriculture. Additionally, a bounty system established by the Hokkaido Development Agency provided incentives for hunting these predators.

Hokkaidō Wolf – Fact sheet

Alternative name	Ezo wolf, Sakhalin wolf, Yezo wolf, Yesso wolf
Scientific name	Canis lupus hattai, Canis lupus haltai, Canis lupus rex
Original range	Hokkaido (Japan), Sakhalin (Russia)
Time of extinction	1889
Causes of extinction	hunting, habitat loss

The extinction of the Hokkaido wolf

The systematic poisoning campaign led by Edwin Dun at the Niikappu Ranch to eradicate the Hokkaido wolves was executed with precision. A patrol of about twenty riders distributed poisoned meat at strategic locations daily, and the carcasses of killed horses were also treated with strychnine to attract and kill the wolves.

The campaign quickly proved effective: within the first day, five to six dead wolves were found, and in the following days, more poisoned animals were discovered. By the end of one summer and autumn, the Hokkaido wolves were almost entirely eradicated. Many foxes, crows, and stray dogs also fell victim to the poisoning.

The drastic decline of the Ezo sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis), the main prey of the Hokkaido wolf, between 1878 and 1879 further facilitated the wolves’ extermination. The few remaining deer were concentrated in the Hidaka region, where wolves were also found, allowing hunters to target their poisoned baits effectively. In March 1880, Meiji officials proudly reported the success of the poisoning campaign and recommended its continuation for the final eradication of the wolves.

Just 20 years after the campaign began, the Hokkaido wolf was considered extinct on the island of Hokkaido by 1889. It may have survived longer on the Russian island of Sakhalin, with some scientists suggesting it existed there until 1945. However, Soviet zoologist Vladimir Heptner documented in Mammals of the Soviet Union (1998) that wolves had not been permanently resident on Sakhalin since the early 20th century, but only occasionally crossed the Nevelsk Strait on the ice without settling there.

The story of the Hokkaido wolf parallels that of the thylacine, as both animals were driven to extinction through human activities and targeted eradication policies. Despite their disappearance, both species retain cultural significance in their respective regions. In a 2023 cross-cultural and interdisciplinary study, Shoko Yoneyama examines the cultural importance and the lasting impact of the extinction of these two species.

Was Edwin Dun responsible for the extinction of the Hokkaido wolves?

Edwin Dun undoubtedly played a crucial role in the eradication of the Hokkaido wolves, but he was not solely responsible. While his poisoning campaign in the late 1870s was highly effective, other factors also contributed to the wolves’ extinction. The Kaitakushi, Hokkaido’s development agency, had implemented a complex bounty system that incentivized the killing of wolves and other predators. Additionally, the rapid development of Hokkaido and the resulting changes in the landscape put significant pressure on the wolf population.

Dun was instrumental in the eradication of the Hokkaido wolves, but responsibility also lies with the Japanese authorities who adopted and implemented Western methods. Dun was later celebrated for this “success” and recognized as the one who secured the agricultural future of Hokkaido.

Historian Brett L. Walker emphasizes in Meiji Modernization, Scientific Agriculture, and the Destruction of Japan’s Hokkaido Wolf (2004) that Japan revered the wolf as a sacred being before the Meiji Restoration. However, with the introduction of Western concepts of modernity and agriculture, this attitude changed radically. The extermination of the Hokkaido wolf was viewed as a necessary step towards the modernization and industrialization of the country, despite contradicting earlier cultural beliefs.

Hokkaido wolf – Larger than the Honshu wolf

In a 2010 osteological and genetic analysis of the Hokkaido wolf, Japanese biologist Naotaka Ishiguro and his team examined 20 skull and eight jaw features of Hokkaido wolf skeletons. They also analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to assess the genetic relationships between the Hokkaido wolf and other wolf populations, including the Honshu wolf.

The results showed that the Ezo or Hokkaido wolf was larger than the also-extinct Honshu wolf. With a shoulder height of 70 to 80 centimeters, it resembled the gray wolves of the Asian and North American continents. Morphological and genetic features suggest that the Hokkaido wolf was closely related genetically to the Canadian gray wolf or timberwolf (Canis lupus lycaon).

Although both the Honshu and Hokkaido wolves were native to Japan, they differed significantly from one another. Unlike its smaller southern relative, the Honshu wolf, which had a shoulder height of only 56 centimeters, the large Hokkaido wolf had a more traditional wolf-like appearance with a large skull and long, curved canines. While the Honshu wolf became smaller and more dog-like due to island dwarfism, the Hokkaido wolf retained its original size, reminiscent of its large Siberian ancestors.

The absence of island dwarfism in the Hokkaido wolf could be attributed to several factors. The colder climate in northern Hokkaido, similar to that in Siberia, likely favored a larger and more robust body size (Bergmann’s Rule). Larger prey animals, such as red deer and Hokkaido deer, also played a role. Additionally, longer genetic mixing between the Hokkaido wolves and their Siberian ancestors may have helped preserve their size, whereas the isolated Honshu wolf lived in a different environment and thus became smaller and more dog-like.

When the Ezo wolf arrived in Hokkaido

Various studies have investigated the origins and migration of the Hokkaido wolf and its relationship with other wolf populations. Research by evolutionary biologist Shuichi Matsumura in 2014 demonstrated through an analysis of mitochondrial genomes that the Hokkaido wolf arrived in Japan relatively recently, less than 14,000 years ago. This arrival coincided with a time when land bridges between Hokkaido and the Asian mainland existed, facilitating migration. This late arrival may also explain why the Hokkaido wolf is phylogenetically distinct from the Honshu wolf, which arrived in Japan much earlier, during the late Pleistocene, approximately 25,000 to 125,000 years ago.

A 2016 study by biologist Jennifer A. Leonard adds to this understanding by showing that today’s wolf species in North America also migrated from Eurasia over land bridges during the last glacial maximum (about 23,000 years ago). This migration is similar to the one that brought wolves to Hokkaido. Leonard’s research indicates that wolves colonized Hokkaido and the southern Japanese islands via land bridges during the Pleistocene.

Thus, the Hokkaido wolf was a later migrant, originating from a Eurasian population genetically closely related to the ancestors of North American wolves. The mtDNA of the Hokkaido wolf shows a relationship with gray wolves from Canada, Alaska, and the USA, suggesting that its ancestors were part of a group that inhabited both North America and parts of Asia.

Physical remains of the Hokkaido wolf are rare

Few physical remains of the Hokkaido wolf have survived: only a small number of often poorly preserved specimens, a few complete or partially complete skeletons, and historical accounts from contemporaries provide evidence of its existence. Among the most significant written records are the unpublished memoirs of Edwin Dun, who describes the appearance and behavior of the Hokkaido wolf. An example from his memoirs reads:

“The Hokkaido wolf is a formidable beast but not dangerous to man as long as other prey is to be had for the killing. During the winter months (…) they lived mostly upon deer which were very plentiful. During the summer their diet was principally horse meat. A full grown wolf weighs from 70 to 80 pounds, he has an enormous head and mouth armed with tremendous fangs and teeth. He is generally very lean but exceedingly muscular. Of a grey color in summer and greyish white in winter, when his fur is thick and long. His feet are remarkable for their size, three or four times larger than the feet of the largest dog which they resemble in shape, only the claws are much longer. Their large feet enable them to travel rapidly over deep snow (…). They usually hunt singly or in couple but frequently the trail of a pack of four or five or even more is seen in the snow. They are widely scattered throughout the island as a rule but few in any one neighborhood.”

Meiji Modernization, Scientific Agriculture, and the Destruction of Japan’s Hokkaido Wolf. Environmental History Vol. 9, No. 2, April 2004, B. L. Walker.

Today, we know that the Hokkaido or Ezo wolf was an extinct subspecies of the gray wolf, but this was only gradually recognized. In 1890, a comparison of skulls from the Honshu wolf, which had been scientifically described in 1839, with those from Hokkaido wolves revealed distinct differences, but they were initially considered local variants of the same subspecies.

It was not until 1931 that Kyukichi Kishida, in Notes on the Yesso Wolf, described the skull of a Hokkaido wolf killed in 1881 and identified it as a distinct subspecies. The subspecies name hattai is derived from Japanese zoologist Hatta Suburō, who in 1913 speculated that the Hokkaido wolf might be related to the Siberian wolf (Canis lupus communis). However, Suburō had no living specimens for further analysis.

After the Hokkaido wolf was recognized as a subspecies, British zoologist Reginald Innes Pocock examined a specimen acquired in 1886 at the British Museum. Due to its notable size, he named it Canis lupus rex, with “rex” meaning “king” in Latin.

Scientific research continues to discuss wolf subspecies. Over 40 subspecies have been described, though most are considered doubtful. Currently, eleven subspecies are recognized, three of which are considered extinct: the Hokkaido wolf, the Honshu wolf, and the recently described Sicilian wolf, which was scientifically recognized in 2018.

Alleged sightings: Does the Hokkaido wolf still exist?

In On Extinction of the Japanese Wolf (1997), John Knight writes that many Japanese, particularly those living near forests and mountainous regions, question the official extinction date of the Hokkaido wolf in 1889. This skepticism is fueled by sporadic reports of sightings over the past century. In particular, the Ainu people believe that the Hokkaido wolf survived long after 1889, and there are occasional reports from hikers and hunters claiming to have heard wolf howls.

Most of these alleged sightings are concentrated on the Kii Peninsula in the southern part of Japan’s main island, Honshu. For this reason, Knight conducted field research in the mountainous forests of this region between 1987 and 1989, and again between 1994 and 1995. His research focused not only on collecting data related to forestry and wild boar hunting but also on interviewing locals who claimed to have seen wolves or firmly believed that they still existed.

In earlier years, the Nara Prefecture Wildlife Protection Committee and other groups conducted experiments by strategically placing tape recorders in the mountains. The goal was to elicit a response from any potentially surviving Hokkaido wolves by playing recorded wolf howls. Despite these efforts, no conclusive evidence of wolf presence was found.

Knight’s investigation did not aim to disprove the extinction hypothesis or gather zoological evidence for the existence of the Hokkaido wolf. Instead, he sought to understand why and how these sightings were reported by Japanese mountain dwellers and what symbolic significance the wolf held for them. He analyzed how reports of sightings and the belief in the ongoing existence of wolves serve as symbols of the relationship between people and nature, as well as the historical changes in landscapes.

Confusions with feral dogs

In a 2009 post on Cryptomundo, American cryptozoologist Loren Coleman speculates that many of the alleged sightings of Hokkaido wolves are likely due to confusion with wolf-like dog breeds such as Siberian Huskies, Malamutes, or Hokkaido dogs. These dog breeds could have become feral in the wilderness of Hokkaido after being abandoned during a pet boom.

Coleman emphasizes that it is challenging for many people to distinguish between a real wolf and a dog, especially since specimens of the Hokkaido wolf are extremely rare and no known photographs exist. This lack of clear visual reference means that many people have only a vague idea of what this wolf subspecies actually looked like, making it easy for a Husky to be mistaken for a wolf.

Although sightings are rare and evidence remains scant, Coleman does not entirely rule out the possibility that a small population of Hokkaido wolves might have survived. Large portions of the island are remote and inaccessible, particularly in the central and eastern regions of Hokkaido, where there are extensive, uninhabited areas. These regions are difficult to reach, especially in winter when heavy snowfall and icy conditions prevail.

Hokkaido wolves on the Kurils?

The possibility that the Hokkaido wolf also lived on the Kuril Islands is geographically plausible. The 1,200-kilometer-long chain of islands, which belongs to Russia and consists of over 30 islands, connects the Russian peninsula of Kamchatka with the island of Hokkaido. Given that wolves are known to cross icy waters, it seems feasible that the Hokkaido wolf could have inhabited the Kurils.

However, information about the presence of the Hokkaido wolf on the Kurils is contradictory and often inaccurate. Reports of wolf sightings on the islands of Kunashir, Iturup, and Paramushir might be attributed to confusion with feral dogs. For instance, wolves reported on the easternmost Kuril island, Shumshu, were later identified as feral dogs.

In the mid-1960s, a survey of the fauna and flora on the Kurils was conducted. The survey found no wolves, only feral dogs, particularly on the islands of Iturup, Urup, Shumshu, Kunashir, and Paramushir. Despite these findings, much remains unknown about the harsh and often uninhabited Kuril Islands due to their largely untouched nature.

Consequences for the ecosystem from the extinction of the Hokkaido wolf

The extinction of the Hokkaido wolf at the end of the 19th century removed a significant apex predator from the island’s ecosystem. Apex predators often play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of their habitats, and the absence of the Hokkaido wolf led to profound changes on Hokkaido. A 2017 study reconstructing the Hokkaido wolf’s diet revealed that it primarily preyed on Ezo sika deer, but also consumed wild boars (Sus scrofa) and Japanese serows (Capricornis crispus).

Up until about 120 years ago, the Hokkaido wolves kept the populations of sika deer in check. After their disappearance, however, there was an explosive increase in the number of sika deer and wild boars in Japan, leading to significant ecological, social, and economic issues. The sika deer, which can grow up to two meters tall and weigh 170 kilograms, have become agricultural pests and pose a danger on the roads due to frequent accidents. Additionally, they damage the ecosystem by overgrazing certain plant species.

In the past, the Japan Wolf Association proposed reintroducing a predator similar to the Hokkaido wolf to the island. The idea was to reintroduce the Eurasian wolf (Canis lupus lupus), which is related to the extinct Hokkaido wolf. However, local authorities and farmers opposed this plan, fearing that introduced wolves might attack livestock and that controlling these predators would incur high costs.

Although this proposal has not been implemented, the example of Yellowstone National Park in the USA demonstrates that predator reintroduction can be successful. After the extinction of the gray wolf, the uncontrolled increase in elk populations caused significant damage to vegetation. The reintroduction of gray wolves in 1995 helped restore plant life and also boosted the populations of beavers and red foxes, as wolves reduced the number of coyotes that competed with red foxes and preyed on beavers. However, this project required around 30 years of preparation and led to numerous conflicts and negotiations with local farmers.

To address the deer overpopulation, the Hokkaido government has now decided on a different approach. Between 2024 and 2026, emergency measures will be implemented to reduce the deer population by about half, to approximately 360,000 animals. The goal is to significantly decrease the number of deer through increased hunting activities. The target for hunters has been drastically raised, aiming to cull about 185,000 deer annually. Particularly, the hunting of female deer will be intensified to reduce reproduction rates and ensure long-term control of the population.